Graphic Design: What Are Colors?

What Are Colors?

Colors are visual perceptions generated by our brain's interpretation of the light reaching our eyes. Visible light is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which includes every form of electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves to gamma rays. Within this spectrum, visible light occupies a range of wavelengths running roughly from 380 nm (nanometers) for violet to 700 nm for red.

A nanometer is a unit of length equal to one billionth of a meter. It's a measurement used in physics and chemistry to describe wavelengths, particle sizes and other quantities at the nanometric scale. For example, as we said, visible light's wavelength is measured in nanometers, with violet around 380 nm and red around 700 nm.

The colors we perceive correspond to different wavelengths within this range, for example:

• Violet: roughly between 380 and 450 nm.
• Blue: roughly between 450 and 495 nm.
• Green: roughly between 495 and 570 nm.
• Yellow: roughly between 570 and 590 nm.
• Orange: roughly between 590 and 620 nm.
• Red: roughly between 620 and 700 nm.

When light hits an object, the object absorbs certain wavelengths and reflects others. The reflected wavelengths are what our eyes perceive as color. For example, an object that looks red is one that reflects the wavelength corresponding to red and absorbs the rest.

This is how the colors we see in our surroundings are generated, whether in nature, in works of art, or in designed products. Color perception is a complex phenomenon involving the interaction of light, objects and our visual system, and it's fundamental to our aesthetic and emotional experience of the world.

Classification & Properties

Colors can be classified and have distinctive attributes or properties that make them unique and let them interact with each other in different ways. These properties are fundamental to understanding how colors combine, how they're perceived, and how they're used in design and art.

Colors can be classified into three main categories: primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary colors, Blue, Red and Yellow, are those that can't be obtained by mixing other colors. Secondary colors, Green, Orange and Violet, result from mixing two primary colors, and tertiary colors come from mixing a primary color with a secondary color.

• Hue: refers to a color's basic name in the visible spectrum, like red, blue, green, etc.
• Saturation: describes a color's intensity or purity. A saturated color is purer and more vivid, while a less saturated one looks more grayish. A bright red has high saturation. Saturation drops when a color is mixed with its complement or when gray is added to it.
• Lightness/Luminance: the proportion of perceived light; in models like HSL/CIELAB it relates to perceptual brightness.
• Value: relative brightness in the HSV model; at equal saturation, a higher value is perceived as lighter. It's not identical to lightness.
• Temperature: the visual sensation a color conveys, which can be warm or cool. Red is warm; blue is cool.
• Colorfulness: also known as chromaticity, refers to how much color is present compared to a gray of equal luminance.
• Tint and Shade: variations made by adding white (tint) or black (shade) to the base color. E.g.: sky blue (tint) and navy blue (shade).

White and black aren't colors in the traditional sense, they're considered "tones." White is the presence of all the colors of light combined, and black is the absence of light. In color theory, white and black are used to modify a color's tone, creating lighter tones (tint) or darker tones (shade). They're not classified as colors because they don't have a specific wavelength in the visible light spectrum, instead, they're considered tones that affect the lightness and perception of other colors.

Psychology & Color Theory

Color Theory is a field of study that analyzes how we perceive and classify colors, as well as their interaction and effects on our emotions and perceptions. This theory is grounded in the idea that colors don't just have a visual impact, they also have a deep psychological effect.

Colors are commonly divided into warm and cool, based on the sensation they evoke. Warm colors, like red, orange and yellow, tend to be associated with emotions like passion, energy and happiness. Cool colors, like blue, green and violet, on the other hand, are linked to feelings of calm, serenity and freshness.

The psychological dimension of color is based on how different tones can influence our mood and behavior. Throughout history, artists, scientists and designers have developed various theories and color systems to better understand these effects and apply them effectively in art, design and other fields.

There isn't a single color theory, but rather a set of approaches that address color from different perspectives, both in art history and in optics, a branch of physics.

History

The history of color theory begins in ancient Greece with the first attempts to understand how colors relate to light and matter. Greek philosophers, like Aristotle, had already speculated about color, but it was with the advent of modern science that color theory began to take shape.

In the 17th century, pioneer Isaac Newton carried out fundamental experiments that marked a turning point in color theory. In 1666, Newton used a prism to break white light down into the spectrum of colors, demonstrating that white light is made up of a series of colors. This discovery laid the groundwork for understanding how light mixes to create different colors, and his work, "Opticks," published in 1704, cemented his color theory.

In the early 19th century (1810), Johann Wolfgang von Goethe offered an alternative perspective with his work "Theory of Colours." Unlike Newton, who focused on the physics of color, Goethe explored the psychological and emotional impact of colors on humans.

The 19th century brought significant advances with Michel Eugène Chevreul, who published "De la loi du contraste simultané des couleurs" in 1839. Chevreul studied how colors affect the perception of one another when placed side by side and developed the theory of simultaneous contrast.

In the 20th century (1963), Josef Albers published "Interaction of Color." He studied how colors interact with each other and how their perception changes depending on context.

In the 20th century, Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald approached color from a more scientific, systematic perspective, contributing to the creation of more precise, objective color systems.

More recently, color theory has expanded with digital technology. The RGB color model, used in digital media and screens, and the CMYK model, used in printing, have been developed to fit the needs of visual technology.

Over the centuries, color theory has evolved from the earliest philosophical attempts to today's scientific and technological theories.

Colors in Pigments and Light

Color can be understood in two different ways depending on the medium in which it's generated, either by adding light or by mixing pigments. These two approaches give rise to two complementary color theories: additive theory and subtractive theory.

RGB Color System (Red, Green & Blue): In additive theory, color is produced by adding different colored lights together. This model is based on the three additive primary colors, Red, Green and Blue. By combining these colors in different proportions, other colors can be generated. For example, mixing red and green light produces yellow. Each color combination adds light until it reaches white, which combines every color in the spectrum. This system is used in devices with screens.

In subtractive theory, color is generated through the absorption (or subtraction) of certain wavelengths of white light by pigments or dyes. This model is based on subtractive primary colors, which can vary depending on the context.

RYB Color System (Red, Yellow & Blue): This is the traditional model used in painting and the visual arts. By mixing red, yellow and blue pigments, certain wavelengths are subtracted, generating new colors. Mixing all three primary colors together results in a dark tone, close to black.

CMYK Color System (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow & Black): This subtractive model builds color from the absorption of light. Mixing Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black tends toward black, which is the total absence of light. It's used in printing, so you need to convert from RGB to CMYK when working for print.

The Color Wheel

The color wheel is a fundamental tool in color theory that organizes colors into a circular format to show their relationships and how they combine with each other.

It's a graphic, circular representation that lays out the colors of the spectrum in an organized sequence, based on the relationships between them. It's usually arranged so complementary colors sit opposite each other and analogous colors sit next to one another. It also distinguishes primary, or "pure," colors from their derivatives, which are combinations of them.

• Circular Organization: the color wheel arranges colors in a circle, with primary colors placed at equal distances from each other and secondary and tertiary colors placed between them.
• Primary Colors: in the RYB model, the primaries are Red, Yellow and Blue. In the RGB model, Red, Green and Blue. In the CMYK model, Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black.
• Secondary Colors: in RYB: Orange (Red + Yellow), Green (Yellow + Blue) and Violet (Blue + Red). In RGB: Cyan (Green + Blue), Magenta (Red + Blue) and Yellow (Red + Green).
• Tertiary Colors: a mix of a primary color with an adjacent secondary color (e.g., Red-Orange, Yellow-Green).
• Complementary Colors: opposites on the color wheel (e.g., Red and Green).
• Analogous Colors: neighbors on the wheel (e.g., lilac, violet and dark violet).
• Triadic Scheme: three colors spaced 120° apart from each other (e.g., Orange, Green and Violet).
• Contrast and Harmony: useful for combining complements (contrast) or analogous/monochromatic colors (harmony).

The color wheel offers a visual understanding of the relationships between colors and makes it easier to combine them for both aesthetic and functional purposes.

Applications

Color theory has a wide range of applications across different fields, from graphic design and fashion to psychology and therapy. Let's look at some of the most common ones:

• Graphic Design and Web:
  • Visual identity: coherent palettes for brands.
  • Interfaces: appealing, functional UI (UX).
  • Accessibility: combinations with enough contrast.


• Advertising and Marketing:
  • Emotional impact to influence decisions.
  • Segmentation by audience and market.


• Art and Design:
  • Visual composition and chromatic narrative.
  
  
• Fashion and Textiles:
  • Color selection for collections and trends.
  
  
• Interior Design and Décor:
  • Color schemes for specific environments.


• Color Psychology and Therapy:
  • Effects on mood and well-being.


• Education and Training:
  • Color mixing, visual perception and artistic creation.


• Film and Photography:
  • Color correction and visual style.

These examples show how colors are powerful tools for communicating, expressing emotions, and creating meaningful experiences.

Colors by Context

Colors carry meanings and associations that vary depending on cultural, historical and psychological context. Some examples:

• Graphic Design and Web (popular):
  • Blue: trust, professionalism, calm.
  • Red: emotion, urgency, passion.
  • Green: growth, freshness, stability.
  • Orange: attention, enthusiasm, creativity.
  • Gray: neutral, elegant, modern.


• Branding:
  • Blue: technology/finance (e.g., Facebook, IBM).
  • Red: food and beverages (e.g., Coca-Cola, McDonald's).
  • Green: health/environment (e.g., Starbucks, Whole Foods).
  • Yellow: energy/fun (e.g., McDonald's, DHL).
  • Black: luxury and sophistication (e.g., Chanel, Ferrari).


• Fashion:
  • Black, white, navy, gray, red.


• Painting and Décor:
  • Neutrals, earth tones, pastels, and "jewel tones."
• Office Interiors:
  • Blue, gray, white, green, beige.
• Digital Advertising:
  • Blue, red, green, yellow, orange.

Color choices influence how the audience perceives and responds. Considering the emotional and psychological impact is key to creating effective experiences.

Importance in Branding

Color theory is key to building a recognizable, consistent brand identity. A well-chosen palette lets you stand out in crowded markets, align your values with your message, and improve memorability.

Colors convey emotions and values (e.g., blue = trust; red = energy). Choosing the right ones improves marketing effectiveness and perceived quality.

It also enables consistent visual experiences across web, print and social media, with cultural adaptations where needed.

In short, color theory helps establish identity, communicate values, differentiate a brand, influence purchase decisions and create consistent experiences.